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A complete, brief, and easy-to-understand solution to the Past Paper 2025 By Dr.Abdul Rehman Yousaf :
Q.2: Answer any 25 parts (2 × 25 = 50)
(i) Structure of Virus: A virus has a protein coat (capsid) surrounding genetic material (DNA or RNA). Some have an envelope outside the capsid.
(ii) Spores: Spores are resistant forms of bacteria. They help bacteria survive harsh conditions like heat or dryness.
(iii) Yeast: Yeast is a fungus. It reproduces by budding (a small new cell grows from the parent cell).
(iv) Monitoring Equipment in OT: ECG monitor, pulse oximeter, blood pressure monitor, and capnograph.
(v) Parasite: A parasite lives on or inside another organism (host) and causes harm. Example: Plasmodium (causes malaria).
(vi) Role of Insects in Disease Transmission: Insects like mosquitoes and flies spread diseases like malaria and cholera by carrying germs.
(vii) Four Modes of Hepatitis B Spread:
- Blood transfusion
- Unsterilized needles
- Sexual contact
- From mother to baby
(viii) Precautions While Using Diathermy Machine:
- Use grounded cables
- Avoid flammable gases
- Use proper electrode
- Monitor patient carefully
(ix) Innate Immunity: Natural defense present from birth like skin, mucus, and white blood cells.
(x) Bacteria Causing Meningitis: Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae.
(xi) Classification by Shape:
- Cocci (round)
- Bacilli (rod)
- Spirilla (spiral)
- Vibrios (comma-shaped)
(xii) Malaria Prevention: Use mosquito nets, insect repellents, drain standing water, and take antimalarial drugs.
(xiii) Nosocomial Infection: Infections acquired in hospitals. Example: MRSA, urinary tract infections from catheters.
(xiv) Microbiology and Microorganisms:
- Microbiology: Study of tiny living organisms (microbes).
- Microorganisms: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa.
(xv) Chemical Sterilizers: Ethylene oxide, Glutaraldehyde.
(xvi) Gram Staining Technique: Stains bacteria to classify them:
- Gram-positive: Purple
- Gram-negative: Pink
(xvii) Blood Transfusion: Transfer of blood from one person to another. Used in surgery or anemia.
(xviii) Communicable Diseases: Spread from person to person. Examples: Tuberculosis, Flu, COVID-19, Measles.
(xix) Bacteria Causing Pneumonia:
- Streptococcus pneumoniae
- Haemophilus influenzae
- Klebsiella pneumoniae
- Mycoplasma pneumoniae
(xx) Disease by HIV Virus: AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).
(xxi) Use of Defibrillator Machine: Delivers electric shock to restart heart in cardiac arrest.
(xxii) OT Disinfectants: Glutaraldehyde, Formaldehyde, Hydrogen peroxide, Alcohol.
(xxiii) Endotoxin: Toxin released from dead gram-negative bacteria. Example: Lipopolysaccharide.
(xxiv) Blood Transfusion Reaction: When mismatched blood causes fever, chills, or organ damage.
(xxv) Vaporizer in Anesthesia Machine: Converts liquid anesthetic into vapor for patient inhalation.
(xxvi) Bacteria Causing Diarrhea:
- E. coli
- Salmonella
- Shigella
- Vibrio cholerae
(xxvii) UTI Bacteria:
- Escherichia coli
- Proteus mirabilis
(xxviii) Two Gram-Negative Rods:
- E. coli
- Klebsiella
(xxix) Cross Matching Blood: Prevents transfusion reaction by ensuring donor and patient blood types match.
(xxx) Pulse Oximeter: Measures oxygen level (SpO2) and pulse rate.
(xxxi) Diseases by Rickettsia:
- Typhus
- Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Section C (30 Marks) – Attempt Any Two
Q.3: What is sterilization? Write a detailed note on physical sterilization.
Sterilization: Process of killing all microorganisms including spores.
Physical Methods:
- Heat:
- Dry Heat: Hot air oven (160°C for 2 hrs)
- Moist Heat: Autoclave (121°C, 15 psi for 15–20 mins)
- Radiation:
- UV rays for surfaces
- Gamma rays for medical instruments
- Filtration: Removes microbes from liquids and air (HEPA filters).
Q.4: What is diathermy machine? Write a detailed note.
Diathermy Machine: Used in surgery to cut tissues or stop bleeding using electric current.
Types:
- Monopolar: One active electrode, one return pad.
- Bipolar: Current passes between two tips (like forceps).
Uses:
- Cuts tissues
- Coagulates blood vessels
- Reduces bleeding
Safety Precautions:
- Proper grounding
- Keep away from metal implants
- Avoid flammable materials
Q.5: Write a detailed note on gram-positive bacteria.
Gram-Positive Bacteria:
- Stain purple in gram stain due to thick peptidoglycan wall.
Examples:
- Staphylococcus aureus: Causes skin infections, pneumonia.
- Streptococcus pyogenes: Causes sore throat, scarlet fever.
- Bacillus anthracis: Causes anthrax.
- Clostridium tetani: Causes tetanus.
Characteristics:
- Thick cell wall
- No outer membrane
- Sensitive to antibiotics like penicillin
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